As America gets drawn outward into the world, how does the government’s role expand and change the definition of American ideals?
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States flexed its imperialistic muscles, expanding its influence in territories like Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The victory Spanish-American War marked its emergence as a global power. With the outbreak of World War I, the U.S., initially neutral, flexed its military and economic muscles even more, joining the Allies and playing a pivotal role.
Imperial expansion brought economic prosperity through access to new markets and resources, solidifying the nation's influence in the Pacific and Latin America while World War I showcased American military prowess, accelerating technological advancements and establishing the U.S. as a formidable global power. Participation in post-war diplomacy elevated its diplomatic importance, even though the Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations. However, these gains were accompanied by ethical debates over imperialism and the challenges of balancing international responsibilities with domestic interests. |
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The Imperial Presidents
Theodore Roosevelt, during his presidency from 1901 to 1909, played a significant role in advancing U.S. imperialism by embracing a robust and assertive foreign policy. Known for his "Big Stick Diplomacy," Roosevelt pursued an agenda that combined military strength with diplomatic negotiation. Under his leadership, the U.S. completed the construction of the Panama Canal, enabling quicker naval movement between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and asserting American influence in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt also championed the idea of the United States as a global power, intervening in international disputes and projecting military force to protect American interests. His approach to foreign affairs, characterized by a willingness to use military force when necessary, contributed to the expansion of U.S. influence on the world stage during the era of imperialism.
William Howard Taft, who succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as the 27th President of the United States from 1909 to 1913, continued the imperialistic endeavors initiated by his predecessor but with a more emphasis on diplomacy and economic interests. Taft pursued a policy known as "Dollar Diplomacy," which aimed to advance U.S. interests abroad through economic influence rather than military intervention. He encouraged American businesses to invest in foreign regions, particularly in Asia and Latin America, with the belief that economic ties would promote stability and safeguard U.S. interests. While Taft did employ military force on occasion, such as in Nicaragua and Honduras, his presidency is often associated with a shift towards a more diplomatic and economically focused approach to imperialism, aiming to expand American influence through financial and commercial means rather than military might.
Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President from 1913 to 1921, approached imperialism and foreign policy with a distinct ideology. Initially, Wilson emphasized a commitment to neutrality and a desire to avoid entanglement in global conflicts, especially during the early years of World War I. However, as the war escalated, Wilson shifted from neutrality to a more interventionist stance. Propelled by his vision for a world "safe for democracy," Wilson led the United States into World War I in 1917. His presidency is marked by the articulation of the Fourteen Points, which aimed to establish principles for a just and lasting peace. Wilson advocated for the creation of the League of Nations, a precursor to the United Nations, as a means of preventing future conflicts through international cooperation. Although his vision for the League faced resistance at home and ultimately failed in the Senate, Wilson's idealistic approach to international relations left a lasting impact on the trajectory of U.S. diplomacy and the nation's role in shaping the post-war world order.
The Spanish American War and Yellow Journalism
The Spanish-American War (1898) was primarily triggered by a confluence of factors that heightened tensions between the United States and Spain. The long-standing Cuban struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule garnered widespread sympathy in the U.S., fueled by sensationalized reporting known as "yellow journalism," which depicted Spanish atrocities against Cuban civilians. The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898, though later proven to be caused by an internal explosion, further inflamed American sentiments. Public pressure and political rhetoric, including the rallying cry "Remember the Maine, to Hell with Spain!" pushed the United States towards intervention. Amid these sentiments, President William McKinley asked Congress for a declaration of war against Spain, officially commencing hostilities in April 1898.
The conflict unfolded on multiple fronts, with the most prominent theater of war occurring in the Philippines and the Caribbean. In the Pacific, Commodore George Dewey's naval victory in the Battle of Manila Bay swiftly crippled the Spanish fleet. Concurrently, American forces led by General William Shafter engaged in ground operations in Cuba. The war was relatively short-lived, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in December 1898. The treaty ceded territories, including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, to the United States. The acquisition of the Philippines, however, sparked a prolonged and contentious conflict. Filipino insurgents, who had been fighting against Spanish rule, found themselves facing American forces as the United States sought to establish control. This Philippine-American War, lasting until 1902, marked a complex chapter in U.S. imperialism, as the nation transitioned from liberator to occupier in the eyes of many Filipinos. The war's conclusion solidified the United States as a global power, with new overseas territories and a role in shaping the destiny of nations beyond its continental borders.
Yellow journalism, coined from the "Yellow Kid Papers," refers to a sensationalized and exaggerated style of reporting that emerged in the late 19th century. Popularized by media moguls Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, it prioritized sensationalism over accuracy to attract readership and boost circulation. The term itself originates from the Yellow Kid comic strip's distinctive yellow nightshirt. Pulitzer's New York World and Hearst's New York Journal engaged in fierce competition, employing sensational headlines and emotionally charged stories to grab readers' attention. The rivalry reached a peak during the Spanish-American War, where both newspapers contributed to war fever by publishing exaggerated accounts of events. While successful in increasing sales, yellow journalism raised ethical concerns and influenced the evolving dynamics between the media, public opinion, and political decision-making in subsequent years.
World War I
Germany's policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, targeting any vessel around the British Isles, led to the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, a British passenger ship carrying American civilians. The loss of American lives fueled anti-German sentiments, but the U.S. remained neutral. In 1917, the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, in which Germany proposed a military alliance with Mexico against the U.S., further escalated tensions. Combined with a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, these events prompted President Woodrow Wilson to seek a declaration of war from Congress on April 2, 1917, citing the need to make the world "safe for democracy." America's entry into World War I marked a change in US foreign policy, shifting from neutrality to active engagement in global conflicts.
In response to its entry into World War I, the United States underwent a comprehensive mobilization effort on various fronts. The government implemented the Selective Service Act of 1917, drafting millions of men into military service, while also encouraging voluntary enlistment. To finance the war effort, the U.S. launched extensive campaigns promoting Liberty Bonds, encouraging citizens to invest in government securities. These bond drives played a crucial role in raising funds for the war, fostering a sense of patriotism and financial contribution among the American population. The government also established the War Industries Board to coordinate production, regulated prices, and facilitated cooperation between labor and industry. The war effort led to a significant transformation of the American economy, as factories shifted to wartime production, and the government played an increasingly central role in shaping and directing the nation's resources toward the war.
The War Industries Board, established in 1917, played a central role in orchestrating the nation's industrial mobilization for the war. It regulated production, prioritized resources, and aimed to ensure efficiency in supporting the military effort. Concurrently, the Committee on Public Information, under the leadership of George Creel, engaged in extensive propaganda campaigns to shape public sentiment and maintain support for the war through ads and the Four Minute Men. On the home front, citizens participated in various initiatives such as victory gardens, fuel conservation, and liberty bond drives to contribute actively to the war effort. The wartime atmosphere led to the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1919, granting women the right to vote and symbolizing the recognition of their indispensable contributions during the war. Against this backdrop, President Woodrow Wilson's journey to Paris in 1918 was a pivotal moment, where he advocated for his vision of a lasting peace through the Fourteen Points and the establishment of the League of Nations, reflecting the interconnectedness of wartime measures and significant transformations on the domestic and international fronts.
Mobilizing For War
The War Industries Board, established in 1917 under the leadership of Bernard Baruch, played a pivotal role in coordinating these endeavors. In response to the demands of modern warfare, the government encouraged businesses to adopt cutting-edge technologies such as mass production techniques, chemical manufacturing processes, and advancements in communication systems. Industries were incentivized to explore new materials and methods to enhance the production of weaponry, ammunition, and equipment. Workers were trained in these emerging technologies to meet the demands of the rapidly evolving war landscape. This push for innovation resulted in the development and deployment of new weaponry like machine guns, tanks, and aircraft, fundamentally transforming the nature of warfare.
The War Department, under the leadership of Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, called for the enlistment of African Americans into the military, leading to the formation of segregated units such as the 92nd and 93rd Divisions. Prominent African American leaders, including W.E.B. Du Bois and Monroe Trotter, advocated for "The Double V" campaign, asserting that victory in the war abroad should be accompanied by victories against racism and discrimination at home. Despite their service, African American soldiers often faced segregation and racial discrimination within the military.
One of the major American battles in World War I was the Battle of Cantigny, fought in May 1918. American soldiers, engaged in trench warfare for the first time, might have expressed a mix of fear and determination in their journals and letters. The successful American offensive at Cantigny boosted morale and instilled a sense of confidence among the troops. Another significant engagement was the Battle of Belleau Wood in June 1918. American forces faced intense German resistance, enduring heavy casualties. The Meuse-Argonne Offensive, the largest American operation of the war, beginning in September 1918, witnessed soldiers grappling with the harsh conditions of trench warfare and the toll it took on both their physical and mental well-being. Throughout these experiences, the writings of American soldiers likely reflected a range of emotions, from the patriotism that fueled their commitment to the hardships and horrors they encountered on the battlefield.
With a significant number of men deployed in the military, women took up positions in factories, offices, and munitions plants, often in roles traditionally occupied by men. The iconic image of the "Hello Girls," bilingual telephone operators who served in the U.S. Army Signal Corps, represents just one facet of the expanded roles for women during this period. Additionally, women served as nurses on the home front and overseas, providing crucial medical care to the wounded. They were also encouraged to grow Victory Gardens, contributing to food production and ensuring a stable domestic food supply. Women's roles extended to volunteer work with organizations like the Red Cross and participation in knitting circles to provide essential items for soldiers.
The End of War at Versailles
Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points were a set of principles outlined in a speech to the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, during World War I. Wilson issued these points as a framework for peace and a vision for the post-war world. His primary motivation was to offer a just and lasting resolution to the conflict that would prevent future wars. The points included open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, the reduction of armaments, and the establishment of a League of Nations to ensure collective security and prevent future conflicts.
The response to Wilson's 14 Points was mixed. While some Allied leaders embraced the principles, there were reservations, particularly from France and Britain, which sought harsher terms for Germany in the peace negotiations. The points were more favorably received by the German government, leading to an armistice based on these principles in November 1918.
Wilson hoped to achieve a fair and equitable peace settlement that would address the underlying causes of the war, emphasizing the principles of self-determination for nations, open diplomacy, and the establishment of an international organization to maintain peace. His vision for the League of Nations reflected a commitment to collective security and diplomacy, with the goal of preventing future conflicts through a cooperative and transparent international framework.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, marked the conclusion of the Paris Peace Conference, which convened to settle the terms of peace after World War I. The negotiations were complex, involving representatives from the Allied powers, including Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Georges Clemenceau of France, and David Lloyd George of Britain. The treaty imposed significant penalties on Germany, holding them primarily responsible for the war. Key provisions included territorial losses, disarmament, and the imposition of reparations. The League of Nations, a concept advocated by Wilson to ensure collective security and prevent future conflicts, was included in the treaty.
The outcomes of the Treaty of Versailles were contentious. Germany, experiencing economic hardship and political turmoil, resented the harsh terms, viewing them as a "Diktat" or dictated peace. The treaty's punitive measures contributed to long-term animosities and economic difficulties in Germany, setting the stage for future geopolitical tensions. Additionally, the U.S. Congress rejected the treaty, as American lawmakers were hesitant to commit to collective security obligations under the League of Nations. The treaty's shortcomings and the inability to address underlying issues ultimately fueled grievances that played a role in the lead-up to World War II. The Treaty of Versailles, while attempting to bring about a lasting peace, faced criticism for its punitive approach, contributing to the complexities of post-war European relations.